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An Outline of Turkish History from its Inception to 1923
Throughout history the Turks have established numerous
states in different geographical areas on the continents
of Asia, Europe and Africa. Therefore, they encountered
different cultures, they influenced these cultures and were
influenced by them.
The Chinese records reported that the first appearance
of the Turks in history was in the Kö¤ men Mountains,
where the most ancient remains were found. The culture referred
to as Tagar, featuring remains found on the Tagar Island
at the Yenisei River on the northern foot of the Köðmen
Mountains and dating back to the seventh century B.C., is
attributed to the ancient Turks. The Tagar Culture, however,
originated from another ancient culture called the Karasuk
which flourished on the same shores, which dates back to
two thousand B.C.
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Portrait head of Kul Tegin,
Göktürk Khan,
Museum at Ulaanbaatur,
capital of Mongolia. |
It is accepted that Turkish political history in Asia starts
with the Huns. The Hun State , which first appeared in the
third century B.C., became a significant and powerful state
during the reign of its founder, Mete Khan, and passed through
fundamental changes, economically and socially, due to her
relations with China. Having a defined and certain strategy,
Mete first of all defeated the Mongolians and then the Yuechis,
and thereafter, having taken the western gates and trade
routes of China under his control, he gained significant
economic power. This systematic expansion policy resulted
in the seizure of Eastern Turkestan, the wheat and provisions
granary, by the Huns.
After the collapse of the Asian Hun State, a new state called
the Göktürk was founded by the Turkish tribes who adopted
the traditions and administrative experiences of the Huns.
The Göktürk State (552-740) is the second great state established
by the Turks. Unlike the Huns, the Göktürks attached particular
importance to urbanization, realized agricultural reforms
and seed improvement and "sagacity" was the foremost
concept.
Bilge Khan and Kultegin took their place in history as
the wisest and most heroic figures among Turkish statesmen.
They asserted that the state could not be ruled only by
fighting and bravery and the Khanate should also require
wisdom. It was because of this that both the Khans and Tonyukuk,
another Göktürk Khan, immortalized their accomplishments
with inscriptions. These inscriptions are the first written
texts of the Turkish language.
The Göktürk State collapsed after struggles with
the Chinese, on the one hand, and with the Turkish tribes
within the state, such as the Dokuz O¤uzlar, Karluks
and Basm›ls, on the other hand. The Uigur Turks, who
were the native tribes of the Orhun and Selenge valleys,
founded the third great Turkish state. The Uigur State (741-840)
attached importance to trade and continued the traditions
and customs of the Göktürks. The trade developed
and the Manichean temples were turned into bazaar temples
in time due to the influence of Manicheism, the official
religion.
The warlike aspects of the Uigurs gradually grew weaker
in time as they developed culturally and commercially. The
Kyrgyz Turks living to the northwest, took advantage of
this situation and planned a surprise attack on the Uigur
capital city, which resulted in a war and at the end the
Uigur state collapsed.
The Western Turks. A group of Huns who migrated towards
the West first settled in a region to the north of the Black
Sea extending to the Danube River. First the Huns made raids
on Iran and Anatolia via the Caucasia, and then they attacked
the territories of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires.
They fought with the Franks in 428, and two years later,
reached the areas which are presently the Netherlands and
Denmark. The Western Huns, who were known as the first Turkish
state founded in Europe, became a great state with territories
extending from the banks of the Rhine to the Volga River,
under the leadership of Attila the Hun. This state played
an important role in transmitting Eastern civilization to
the West, and organized campaigns to Italy, the Balkans
and Gaul in the reign of Attila. The Western Hun State collapsed
a short time after Attila passed away (470).
During the collapse of the Hun Empire in Europe, a new
wave of tribal migrations started in Central Asia. The north
of the Black Sea was confronted with a new wave of Turkish
migration. The first tribes to arrive were the Sabirs, Sarogurs
and Onogurs. These Ogur tribes, who settled to the north
of the Caucasus, raided the Byzantine territories from Macedonia
to Thessaly. It is known that the Bulgarian Turks also came
to this region along side the Ogur Turks. Byzantine sources
refer to the name "Bulgarian" for the first time
in 482. In fact, the Avars, with the Bulgarian Turks under
their sovereignty, sieged the Byzantine capital at the beginning
of the seventh century. The Avars , who left their homeland
in Central Asia and who escaped towards the West when the
Göktürk State was founded in 552, had an important
place in the history of Europe. They first came to Caucasia
and the north of the Black Sea, made an agreement with the
Byzantines and fought against, and defeated, Turkish tribes
such as the Sabirs and Onogurs on behalf of the Byzantines.
They expanded to the banks of the Danube River, over the
lands of the Ants, a Slavic tribe. From time to time, they
made raids throughout the Balkans and even as far as the
Peloponnese in Greece. They sieged Istanbul in 626 together
with the Bulgarian Turks. The borders of the Avar Empire
extended from the Dnieper to the Elbe River and from the
North Sea to the Adriatic Sea during the reign of their
famous ruler Bayan Khan. The Avar Empire collapsed between
776-803 due to the concurrent attacks of Kurum Khan, the
leader of the Bulgarian Turks and Charlemagne (Charles the
Great). Present excavations and research in Hungary and
Central Europe reveal that the Avars had an exemplary organization
within the state and the army and attained a high level
of civilization.
During the period of disintegration of the Sabir State
in the east of Europe, a new Turkish state called the Khazars
came into existence. The Khazars, who were considered to
be the continuation of the Western Göktürks, took
over their military and civilian organizations. This state,
which ruled for over 300 years bears the name of "Turk"
in Arabian, Syrian and Byzantine sources. The Khazars acted
as an allied force of the Byzantines in the war between
Byzantium and Iran. It is observed that the Arabs who occupied
Azerbaijan around the beginning of the eighth century, also
raided Khazar territories and occupied their capital city
Belencer (in Dagestan).
The war between the Khazars and the Caliphate continued
for almost 25 years. The Khazar armies once again went to
the south of the Caucasus from 762 AD and occupied all of
Azerbaijan and Armenia, and Ras Tarhan, the Khazar commander
advanced up to Georgia. The Khazars were threatened afterwards
by other Turkish tribes, and especially by the Russians.
Their state collapsed towards the end of the tenth century
due to their long lasting wars against the Pechenegs.
Another Turkish tribe living in Eastern and Southeastern
Europe and the Balkans was the Pechenegs. The Pechenegs,
an Oghuz tribe, whose initial settlement around Balkhash
Lake moved on to the nearby Aral Sea during the fight between
the Göktürks and Uigurs. Then they moved further
towards the West and fought against the Khazars. They occupied
the Cuman plains and expelled the Hungarians ruling the
lands between the Don and Dnieper Rivers towards the West.
Giving assistance to the Russians in their fights with the
Khazars, they played a role in the founding of this state.
The Pechenegs, who ruled a territory extending from the
Don River to the Danube River in the tenth century, made
raids on Byzantine territories from the middle of the eleventh
century. However, they were decisively defeated by the joint
forces of the Cumans and Byzantines beside the Lower Maritsa
River in 1091. Some of the separate Pecheneg groups who
could not represent a political existence after this defeat
were settled in the territories of the Byzantine Empire.
Those who stayed in the Balkans and Hungary settled there
and were assimilated. Turkish History in the Islamic Period.
After the decline of the Uigur State, the Karahanid State
was founded in 840 by the Turkish tribes such as the Karluks,
Çigils and Arguls. The reign of the Karahanids is
considered to be a turning point in Turkish history, because
Islam was accepted as the official religion during the reign
of Satuk Buðra Khan, the Karahanid leader. Being the
first Muslim Turkish state established in Central Asia,
they laid the foundations of an historical development called
Turkish-Islamic culture and civilization.
The Karahanids, whose first city of governance was Kashgar
and second was Balasagun to the north, was divided between
two brothers in 1042: the Eastern Karahanids and the Western
Karahanids. The Eastern Karahanid State survived until 1211
and then accepted the sovereignty of the Great Seljuk State.
Islamic-Turkish literature was developed during the rule
of the Karahanid State which was customarily governed by
just, religious, and culture loving Khans and Kashgar and
Balasagun became important cultural centers.
At the time of the rule of the Karahanids, there was another
Turkish state of which the capital city was Ghazna in Afghanistan.
The most powerful period of the Ghaznavid State (936-1187)
was the reign of Mahmud of Ghazna who used the title of
"Sultan" for the first time. Sultan Mahmud, who
organized many campaigns to India, took these places under
Turkish rule, Islamized them and laid the foundation for
today's State of Pakistan. The rulers succeeding Sultan
Mahmud could not maintain this brilliant period. The Ghaznavids
had to retreat to India after the Dandanakan War with the
Seljuks in 1040 and finally came under the sovereignty of
the Seljuks.
Another great Turkish state was the Seljuk State (1040-1157)
founded by the Seljuk Bey who was a member of the Kinik
tribe of the Oghuz Turks. The borders of the state covered
an area from the Marmara Sea to the Balkhash Lake in Central
Asia and from the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea and the Aral
Sea to the borders of India and Yemen. Therefore, it was
named the Great Seljuk State. At the time of Seljuk rule,
there were also two other great and strong Turkish states,
namely the Karahanids and Ghaznavids. The Seljuks entered
into a struggle of hegemony with these two Turkish states
and were successful in establishing Turkish unity. Togrul
Bey, the Sultan of the Seljuks, entered Baghdad, the Abbasid
Caliphate capital and ended the domination of the Buwayhids,
a Persian Shiite dynasty, in 1055. Therefore, the Caliph
bestowed on Togrul Bey the title of "Ruler of the World".
During the reign of Sultan Alp Arslan, the successor of
Togrul Bey, the territories of the country expanded significantly.
The most significant events of this period were the clashes
with the Byzantine Empire. Sultan Alp Arslan inflicted a
crushing defeat on the Byzantine army under the leadership
of Romanus Diogenes at Manzikert (Malazgirt) in 1071. This
victory firmly established Turkish rule in Anatolia.
During the reign of Sultan Malik Shah, one of the most
powerful rulers of the Seljuks, the Seljuk State experienced
her most successful period in the fields of military, science,
politics and literature. Madrasahs (theological schools)
were opened all over the country. The most important of
these was the Nizamiye Madrasah constructed by the Vizier
Nizam al-Mülk which was the foundation for the architecture
of the Western universities.
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Madrasah with Slim Minarets,
one of the unique examples
of the Seljuk Period, Konya |
After Sultan Malik Shah died, the country was divided into
small states. The Syrian Seljuks (1092-1117), Iraq and Khorasan
Seljuks (1092-1194), Kirman Seljuks (1092-1187) and the
Anatolian Seljuks (1092-1194) were among the small states.
During the disintegration period of the Great Seljuk State
many small beylics and atabeylics were also established
on the Anatolian territories of the state. These beylics
played an important role in making Anatolia Turkish through
the Turkish population they brought and also the architectural
works they made. These beylics had a significant affect
in the strengthening of the Anatolian Seljuk State which
was established later in Anatolia.
Moreover, the Khorezm Shah State (1097-1231) was established
by Mohammed Khorezm Shah, the son of Anushtegin, the palace
servant of Sultan Malik Shah, on the territories of the
Great Seljuk State. The Khorezm Shah State made significant
progress in science and politics.
The most important state established in the place of the
Great Seljuk State is definitely the Anatolian Seljuk State.
Suleiman ibn Qutulmish who established himself at Nicaea
(Iznik) in 1078 tried to expand Turkish rule in Anatolia
and he managed to spread his rule all over Anatolia in a
short period of time. During the reign of his son, Kiliç
Arslan I, the First Crusade began, Iznik was seized by the
Crusaders and given to the Byzantines. Kiliç Arslan
I then established himself in the city of Konya and started
a war of attrition against the invaders. However, he could
not stop the Crusaders who were heading towards Syria. The
efforts to unify Anatolia under Turkish rule were also continued
during the reign of his successor, Sultan Mesud I. He repelled
the Byzantine army headed for Konya and defeated the Crusaders
near the Ceyhan River. Sultan Kiliç Arslan II, the
successor of Mesud I, made the Byzantine intrigues against
the Turks ineffective and inflicted a heavy defeat on the
Byzantine army under the leadership of the Emperor Manuel
Comnenus I, at Myriokephalon near Denizli (1176). Following
this victory, the influence of the Byzantine Empire over
Anatolia was completely lost. Thereafter, trade flourished
and construction activities accelerated. Caravanserais were
built on the roads and shipyards were constructed in Sinop
and the Mediterranean, the madrasahs were opened and important
developments were made in science. The most brilliant period
of Turkish history was experienced during the reign of Sultan
Alaeddin Keykubad I. However, the death of the Sultan by
poisoning created chaos in the country. The religio-political
rebellion of the Babais was followed by the Mongolian invasion
and Anatolia was occupied by the Mongolians after the Kösedag
War between the Seljuks and Mongolians in 1243. Along with
the weakening of the Mongolian rule towards the end of the
thirteenth century, the Turkoman groups who were settled
at the frontiers during the Seljuk period, founded many
beylics (principalities) of varying sizes in Anatolia. The
Karaman, Germiyan, Esref, Hamid, Mentese, Candar, Pervane,
Sahib Ata, Karesi, Saruhan, Aydin, Inanç and Osmanogullari
were among the Turkoman beylics founded in Anatolia in this
period. In this period, which is called the Beylics Period,
all of Anatolia came under Turkish rule and a new period
of welfare began in the country which had been previously
exposed to a great extent to Mongolian destruction. As a
matter of fact, the Ottoman state was founded on these solid
foundations.
In Egypt, the army commander Izzeddin Aybeg was declared
the Sultan, after the death of es-Salih Necmeddin, the last
Ayyubid ruler and thus the Turkish Kölemen (Mameluke)
State (1250-1382) was founded. The Mameluke State has an
important place in Turkish history, because during the reign
of Sultan Aybeg, the Mansure Victory was won which made
the Seventh Crusade ineffective. During the reign of Seyfeddin
Kotuz, the Mongolian-Armenian-Crusaders alliance which tried
to invade Egypt suffered a heavy defeat and the Mongolians
were not able to enter Syria. During the period of the later
Sultans, the Christian hegemony in Syria would end and the
territories extending to Kayseri in Anatolia would be taken
under the rule of the Mameluke Sultanate. In addition, trade
between the east and the west developed during this period.
The Mameluke Sultans were bestowed the title of "Hadimü'l-Harameyn"
(the Servant of Mecca and Medina), due to their services
to Islam, and acquired a justified fame in the Islamic World.
The Mameluke State was wiped out by the Ottoman State.
One of the most important states of the fourteenth century
was the Tamerlane State (1370-1507). It was founded by Tamerlane,
who was a provincial governor in one of the Çagatay
khanates. The borders of the state extended from the Volga
River to the Ganges River in India, and from the Tanri Mountains
to Izmir and Damascus. Tamerlane, who had a violent character,
caused great damage during his military expeditions. The
state became an empire in a period of 35 years. It disintegrated
just as rapidly as it was established after the death of
Tamerlane. Muhammed, his grandson, founded a state in Samarkand.
Pir Muhammed and Iskender, his other grandsons, founded
a state in Iran. Miranshah, his son, founded states in Baghdad
and Azerbaijan. Shahruh, his younger son, founded a state
in Khorasan. During the period of Shahruh, who tried to
establish unity by enlarging the borders of his state, a
brilliant cultural life was started. His son Ulug Bey ascended
the throne as a well-known astronomer. Only Hüseyin Baykara
from the Tamerlane dynasty could manage to hold out in Khorasan.
Herat, the capital city, became one of the most significant
cultural centers of Turkish history. Ali ½ir Nevai,
the Turkish poet and statesman, was educated here. Herat
was seized by the Uzbeks after the reign of Baykara and
the Tamerlane dynasty disappeared.
When the Tamerlane State was established, the Turkoman
group of the Karakoyunlu, which settled between Irbil and
Nakhichevan, founded a state, the center of which was Tabriz.
This state formed by the Yiva, Yazir, Döger and Avsar
tribes of the Oghuz Turks was called the Karakoyunlu State
(1380-1469). The Karakoyunlu State fought with Tamerlane.
Kara Yusuf, the ruler of the Karakoyunlu State, had to take
refuge in the Ottoman state during the reign of Yildirim
Beyazid as a result of pressure by Tamerlane. This strained
relations between the Ottomans and the Tamerlanes and was
considered to be a reason for the Ankara War of 1402. Kara
Yusuf, who managed to recover after this war, reestablished
his state after 1406 and captured Mardin, Erzincan, Baghdad,
Azerbaijan, Tabriz, Kazvin, and Sultaniye. After his death,
the country was dragged into chaos. Although Cihan-shah
managed to reunify the state, he was defeated by Akkoyunlu
Uzun Hasan at Mardin and the country entered under the hegemony
of the Akkoyunlu State.
The Akkoyunlu State (1350-1502) was founded by Turkoman
tribes who settled around Diyarbakir. It emerged as a union
under the leadership of Tur Ali Bey. The Akkoyunlu State
fought against the Trabzon Greek Empire to the north in
this period. The real founder of the state is known to be
Kara Yülük Osman Bey. The most powerful period
of the Akkoyunlu State was the reign of Uzun Hasan. During
his reign the borders of the state extended from the Caspian
Sea to Syria, and from Azerbaijan to Baghdad. For this reason,
Uzun Hasan saw himself as the person who could establish
the union of the Turks and identified himself with Tamerlane
and made plans to abolish the Ottoman State and the Egyptian
Sultanate. He established political relations with the European
states, namely the Christian world, to obtain firearms to
realize his goal. However, his defeat in the Otlukbeli Battle
in 1473 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmet I was a heavy blow
for Uzun Hasan. This defeat helped the collapse of the Akkoyunlu
State and paved the way for the founding of the Safavid
State (1501-1736) by Shah Ismail who managed to get the
Turkoman groups of Ustaçli, Rumlu, Musullu, Tekeli,
Bayburtlu, Karadagli, Dulkadirli, Karamanli, Varsak and
Avsar on his side. At the time when Shah Ismail established
the Turkish political union in Iran, a great part of the
Indian subcontinent was also united under Turkish rule.
Meanwhile, the Ottoman State took almost all of Anatolia
under its rule and also started to expand its Eastern and
Western borders.
Shah Ismail, who founded a political union in Iran, expanded
his territories. In his conquests the religious fervor of
the Shiite sect played a role. However, his activities in
Anatolia, and also his attempts to annex Anatolia, provoked
the reaction of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I (Selim the Grim).
Shah Ismail's army was seriously defeated at the Battle
of Çaldiran in 1514. Still, all his successors, especially
Shah Tahmasp continued fighting against the Ottomans. However,
they were defeated in almost all the battles they fought.
When Nadir Shah of the Avsar tribe established his own dynasty
following the reign of Abbas III, the Safavid period came
to an end.
The reign of the Safavids had an important place in history.
Shah Ismail and the other members of the dynasty were known
for their love of art. In this period, literature, architecture
and handicrafts such as tilemaking, pottery and textiles
developed and great advances were made in bookbinding, decoration
and calligraphy.
Zahiruddin Babür, a member of the Tamerlane dynasty, entered
India and founded the Turkish-Indian (Babür) Empire (1526-1858).
He became famous for his work written in Turkish called
Vekayi Babürname. After his death, in the reigns of his
sons, Humayun and Ekber, this state developed even more
and a large portion of the Indian subcontinent was united
under a single rule. The period of Hürrem, who had assumed
the name of Shah-cihan (Shah of the World) upon ascending
the throne, was the most brilliant period of the empire
in politics and art. The Taj Mahal at Agra, which is considered
to be one of the most beautiful architectural monuments
in the world, was constructed during his reign. Architects
were also sent from the Ottoman State for the construction
of the monument. These good relations with the Ottoman State
also continued during the reign of his son, Alemgir I. Hegave
asylum to the Ottoman governors of Basra who were fighting
against the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the Persian
Gulf. The internal turmoil which began after the death of
Alemgir I continued until the reign of Shah Bahadir II.
The British who suppressed a revolt in the country in 1857
annexed India to Britain and Queen Victoria was officially
declared the Empress of India.
The Ottoman State (1299-1923)
Following the weakening of the Anatolian Seljuk State,
several beylics from various Turkish tribes emerged in Anatolia.
One of these beylics was the Ottoman Beylic, a member of
the Kayi tribe of Oghuz Turks from the Sögüt-Yenisehir-Bilecik
region. The Ottoman Beylic succeeded in establishing the
union of the beylics in Anatolia in a short period of time.
The Ottomans who fought against the neighboring Byzantine
State, first crossed into Rumelia and then captured Constantinople
in 1453 during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II (1451-1481),
putting an end to the Byzantine Empire and thus, to the
Middle Ages. In the reign of Sultan Mehmed II, who assumed
the title of "the Conqueror", the Ottoman State
entered into an era of rapid development which would last
until the end of the sixteenth century.
The Ottomans fought with the Serbs, Bulgarians, Hungarians,
Venetians, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Britain, the Vatican,
Spain and also France and Russia from time to time in the
West; and in the East and the South, the Akkoyunlus, Tamerlanes,
Mamelukes, Safavids and the Karamanids, which were all Turkish
states. During the reign of Sultan Selim I (1512-1520),
Egypt was conquered and the "Caliphate" passed
from the Abbasids to the Ottoman dynasty. During the reign
of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520-1566), the Ottoman State
had a developed state organization, a powerful army and
finances. The borders of the Empire extended from the Crimea
in the North to Yemen and Sudan in the South, and from Iran
and the Caspian Sea in the East to Vienna in the Northwest
and Spain in the Southwest.
However, the Ottoman Empire lost its economic and military
superiority vis-a-vis Europe, which had developed rapidly
with the Renaissance and the geographical discoveries starting
with the sixteenth century and failed to adapt to the new
developments.
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| Sultan Mehmet the Conqoueror |
Sultan Selim I (Selim the Grim) |
Thus, the balance of power developed in favor of the European
States starting in the same century. The nationalist movements
that started in the nineteenth century and the rebellions
of the Balkan nations organized and supported by the European
States and Russia brought about the emergence of independent
states within the Ottoman territories in the Balkans. The
military defeats which exacerbated the process of dissolution
of the Empire forced the Ottoman administration to take
steps to modernize the country. Thus, reform efforts were
made constantly in the Empire throughout the nineteenth
century. The most significant characteristic of the First
Constitutional Period in 1876, which coincided with the
reign of Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), was that it provided
a constitution in the Western model for the first time.
The constitution, which had been prepared by a group of
intellectuals called the "Young Turks" forced
Sultan Abdülhamid to accept this constitution and the Ottoman
state was transformed into a constitutional state. However,
Sultan Abdülhamid disbanded the Parliament in 1877 and terminated
constitutional rule, using the Ottoman-Russian War of 1877-1879
as a pretext. The Committee of Union and Progress which
started activities as an opposition organization founded
by the Young Turks, first forced the Sultan to repromulgate
the Constitution in 1908 and later seized power. However,
the liberalization which started after Abdülhamid with the
Second Constitution did not last long. The Tripoli War (1911-1912)
against the Italians and the Balkan Wars (1912-1913) which
erupted in the wake of these political developments weakened
the new administration and the environment of freedom that
started with the Second Constitution transformed the democratic
environment into a single-party autocracy. The territories
of the Ottoman State, which had allied with Germany in the
First World War (1914-1918), were occupied by Britain, France,
Russia and Greece following the Moudhros Armistice signed
in 1918, after the Central Powers were defeated. The occupation
of the homeland and the helplessness of the Istanbul government
left no other choice but resistance for the Turkish people
in Anatolia and Thrace. The Greek occupation accelerated
the establishment of small defense fronts and the formation
of regional resistance organizations.
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| Topkapi Palace, Throne of the Sultan
(16th century) |
The Ottoman Empire had a state identity which provided
the most tolerant administration of its age throughout the
Middle Ages and the New Age. In fact, throughout the six
hundred years of its administration it was able to hold
together people of different religions, languages and races
and undertook an important role in the protection of cultures
and languages of these nations by providing freedom of religion
and conscience. Furthermore, it contributed significantly
to the history of civilization with both scientific and
cultural masterpieces due to its cultural, scientific, artistic
and state administrative experience and acquisitions of
the previous Turkish states.
The Ottoman Empire created rare masterpieces with its unique
architecture, stone and wood carving, the art of tile-making,
ornamentation, the art of miniature painting, calligraphy
and bookbinding. Above all, it was influencial for hundreds
of years in world politics.
The National War of Independence (1919-1923)
he National War of Independence was an effort to create
a new state from the ruins of an Empire which had completed
its life. These efforts lasted for four years because the
imperialist states wanted to bring to life a new order suitable
for their own political aims and interests from the ruins
of this empire.
The Turkish resistance movements were transformed into
a complete war of independence when Mustafa Kemal landed
at Samsun as the Inspector of the 9th Army on 19 May 1919.
It achieved success against the armies supported by the
large countries of the world and under very difficult conditions.
Mustafa Kemal, who joined the Ottoman Army as a captain
on 11 January 1905, proved his military talents on almost
every front during the First World War. When the Ottoman
Empire was considered to be defeated following the First
World War, he was appointed Commander of the Lightning Armies.
However, when this army was abolished, he returned to Istanbul.
Mustafa Kemal, who understood that a political result could
not be reached against the occupying powers which were oppressing
the Istanbul Government, decided to go to Anatolia and carry
on his struggle from there. He immediately started to organize
national resistance and got in touch with all the army units
and resistance organizations in Anatolia. He made the first
call for a national movement with the circular he issued
in Amasya on 22 June 1919. He organized this national struggle
with the Erzurum and Sivas Congresses, giving it an official
status. According to the National Pact program which took
its final shape at the Sivas Congress, the territories where
the Turks lived could not be partitioned in any form and
limitations such as capitulations which would prevent the
political, legal and financial development of the country
would definitely not be accepted.
When the Entente Powers officially occupied Istanbul and
disbanded the Parliament on 16 March, Mustafa Kemal declared
that the overeignty and life of the Ottoman Empire, which
had lasted for six centuries, was ended.
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Mustafa Kemal Atatürk together with the congress
members
during the Sivas Congress
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He announced that the Grand National Assembly would gather
in Ankara, the headquarters of the national movement, on
23 April 1920 and the authority to represent the nation
would only belong to this parliament as of this date. In
fact, the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA), which
undertook the duties of saving and administrating the country
and obtaining complete independence for the country, started
activities on 23 April 1920 with extraordinary authority.
Mustafa Kemal was elected as the President.
The last connections between Ankara and Istanbul ended
with the signing of the Treaty of Sevrès on 12 August
1920. The agreement included very oppressive conditions
for the Turks. According to the agreement, the Turks could
be sovereign on only a small part of Anatolia and their
state would be under the financial and military control
of the foreign states.
The efforts to set up an Armenian state in Eastern Anatolia,
by using the Treaty of Sevrès were made ineffective
by the forces of the Army Commander Kazim Karabekir in this
region. After the armistice was signed on 18 November 1920,
peace was obtained on the Eastern front by the Gümrü Agreement
which was signed on 2 December 1920. This was the first
international agreement which was signed by the TGNA.
On the Western front, the Greek Army which occupied Izmir
on 15 May 1919 and started to spread throughout the Aegean
region, was stopped by the First and Second Ýnönü Battles
between January-April 1921. The Greek Army suffered a heavy
defeat during the Sakarya Battles between August-September
1921. The Sakarya Battle victory provided significant diplomatic
successes and France withdrew from Adana and the surroundings
with the Ankara Agreement signed by Turkey and France in
October 1921. Thus, another front was eliminated. After
that, all the forces and resources of the country were gathered
for a great attack to be made on the Western front. In fact,
the Greek forces were defeated heavily during the Great
Attack and Commander in Chief Battle between August-September
1922. Izmir was liberated on 9 September 1922. This military
success would accelerate the founding of the Republic of
Turkey. The Mudanya Armistice was signed between the Ankara
Government and the Entente States on 11 October 1922 and
it was decided to hold a conference in Lausanne one month
later to discuss the conditions for a permanent peace treaty.
However, when the Entente States also invited the Istanbul
Government to send its delegation to this conference along
with the Ankara Government, the TGNA declared that the Caliphate
was separated from the Sultanate and that the sultanate
was abolished. Mehmed IV (Vahideddin), the last Ottoman
Sultan, secretly fled aboard a British ship on 17 November
1922.
The Lausanne peace treaty negotiations, at which the Ankara
Government participated as the sole representative, started
on 21 November 1922. The negotiations, at which Ismet Ýnönü
presided over the Turkish delegation, were suspended in
February 1923 due to disagreements especially on the future
of capitulations. The negotiations, which restarted in April
1923, resulted in the signing of the Lausanne Treaty on
24 July 1923. The treaty recognized the creation of a Turkish
State with virtually the same borders as those of the National
Pact of 1920 and guaranteed her complete independence. Thus,
it marked the successful culmination of the National War
of Independence.
Turkey Profile
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